Religion

China has never had one dominant religion. Instead China has a “triple-religion” – the combination of Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism combine to influence and define Chinese culture. Islam is a significant minority faith in China. Various different ethnic groups are primarily or wholly Muslim. The western parts of the country are especially influenced by Islam, but Muslims can be found in many different places in the country.


Confucianism

Confucianism began in China during the Spring and Autumn Period (770 – 476 BC). Its basic foundations were established by a scholar and philosopher named Confucius, a native of what is now Shandong province. Confucius spent his life acting as a political advisor to various competing kings in China, trying to convince each of them to adopt his ideas. After his death, Confucius’ followers organized and expanded many of his materials.

Confucianism is often considered a philosophy or moral teaching rather than a religion, since it deals almost exclusively with human matters and mostly ignores gods, spirits and other supernatural forces. Confucianism has no clergy, and Confucian temples are dedicated to the Confucius’ memory and teachings in a way that is consistent with Chinese ancestor worship and folk religion rather than a unique part of Confucianism.

Confucianism sees humans as social creatures, and that certain rules of social behavior are necessary to ensure a stable and harmonious society. These relations between human beings fall into five different basic categories: Sons and fathers, subjects and rulers, the young and the old, wives and husbands, and friends. In the first four relationships, the first party must accept the authority of the second party. For example, sons are expected to listen to and obey their fathers’ instructions. Wives are subordinate to their husbands. The only equal relationship in Confucianism is the relationship between friends.

In the eyes of Confucius and his followers, only when everyone in society understands and fulfils his or her role can there be social harmony. Individualism is frowned upon and collective interests are given great importance. Proper conduct is cultivated through learning and the observation of certain rituals. Education, too, is encouraged and is seen as a means of social mobility.

Confucianism is native to China but has spread throughout East Asia and parts of South Asia, including countries like Japan, North Korea, South Korea, Vietnam, Malaysia and Singapore. It has undergone huge changes since its formation and has managed to adapt to different time periods and cultures without losing its essence.


Buddhism

Buddhism came to China from Indian missionaries and traders on the Silk Road during the Han Dynasty about 2000 years ago. Buddhism’s basic teachings state that life on earth is suffering, and that desire for material desires is the cause of suffering. Through various means (usually the life of a monk) Buddhists hope to achieve a state called enlightenment – the end of material desires and thus the end of suffering. Buddhism teaches that people are reincarnated after their death. Even normal people are encouraged to do good works during their life; this means that they will be reborn in a more favorable position for achieving enlightenment (for example, into the life of a monk).

At first, Buddhism was not well-suited to Chinese culture. It clashed strongly with Confucianism. Confucian thinkers rejected Buddhism because leading the life of a monk did not seem to benefit society, and the emphasis on individual enlightenment opposed the Confucian ideas of group harmony. Buddhism underwent a long process of adaptation from its Indian roots to fit Chinese culture.

Most Buddhists in China today follow either the Pure Land or Chan schools. Pure Land Buddhism focuses on the Amitabha Buddha, a Bodhisattva – beings that are one step away from enlightenment but have held themselves back to help others. Pure Land Buddhists believe that through devotion to Amitabha (amitofo in Chinese), humans can be reborn in a land of peace and beauty known as the Pure Land, where they will be nursed towards enlightenment with the help of various Bodhisattvas. This is in contrast to some other schools that believe that enlightenment can only come from the individual’s efforts, without outside help.

Chan Buddhism (known in Japan as Zen Buddhism) does not emphasis the study of doctrine and written texts. Instead, Chan Buddhists seek to gain wisdom and insight through direct experience, which in turn eventually leads to enlightenment. This experience comes in the form of careful meditation, chanting and righteous behavior.


Taoism

Taoism is a religion native to China and consists of a number of diverse but related beliefs. As much a philosophy as a religion, Taoism has its roots in ancient folk traditions. Taoism was founded by Laozi in the 6th century BC. Over the centuries it has melded with various folk practices, superstitions and even martial arts and Chinese medicine.

Taoist doctrine centers on the concept of the Tao, or literally “the way.” The Tao is a difficult to grasp concept that refers to the fundamental or true nature of the universe. A line from the Tao Te Ching, Taoism’s most important text, states that “The Tao that can be spoken is the not the real Tao” – in other words, the exact nature of the Tao cannot be expressed. It can, however, be understood and experienced.

Another fundamental aspect of Taoist thought is wuwei, or “without action.” Taoists believe that the universe – or Tao – has a natural flow and rhythm. Human beings should learn to observe and work within the natural flow of the universe instead of fighting against it. Ancient Taoist texts state that people should be like water: soft and flexible, but able to carve stone and change the landscape by following a natural course.

Once a Taoist can achieve this state of wuwei, or inaction, they can see the world as it is without illusions. This state is called pu. When a person has achieved pu, the natural world or Tao can be fully experienced.

Taoist ethnics are seen in the “Three Jewels of the Tao,” namely compassion, moderation and humility. These principles generally forbid the devout Taoist from aggressive war, capital punishment and stop him from asserting active authority. Simple living and modesty are encouraged, especially among Taoist clergy.


Islam

Islam first came to China in 651, when an envoy was sent to the Tang emperor from the Muslim Caliphate in the Middle East. As time went on, Muslim merchants that travelled the Silk Road in western and central China settled down and intermarried with the local Han population, giving rise to the modern-day Hui ethnic group. Even more Muslims settled in China during the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty in the 13th and 14th centuries. Other ethnic groups, including Uyghurs, Kazakhs and more are also overwhelmingly Muslim.

Most Chinese Muslims are Sunni, which is the largest branch of Islam worldwide. Although they are a minority in China (anywhere from 2 – 8 percent of the population), every region in China is home to Muslims. Muslim restaurants can be found in most Chinese towns and cities, and even non-Muslims can be found eating Chinese Muslim cuisine.