Chinese Pre-Imperial History

Chinese history reaches back nearly 5000 years. During the first period of history, the territory that China controlled was still quite small. Political structures were still relatively primitive and the traditional imperial pattern of government had not yet emerged. Disunity, fighting between local leaders and decentralized power were all very common.

The beginnings of China’s imperial system, as well as its traditional religious and philosophical beliefs, have their roots in this early period. By the end of the ancient period, many concepts that would guide China for two millennia were already in place.

Earliest Dynasty: Xia Dynasty

Evidence regarding the ancient Xia Dynasty (2100 BC – 1600 BC) is difficult to find. The much-later ancient Chinese historian Sima Qian mentioned the Xia Dynasty and another ancient historical text known as the Bamboo Annals also mentions the existence of the Xia. However, both Sima Qian and the Bamboo Annals came several thousand years after the end of the Xia period.

Bronze artefacts with very early writing dating back to this period have been found in Henan province. This period marked a shift from Neolithic technology to bronze-age tools and traditional farming patterns.

Early Imperial Patterns Emerge: Shang Dynasty and Zhou Dynasty

The Shang Dynasty (1600 BC to 1046 BC) is the first dynasty that has surviving written records. Early Chinese characters were written on bones and animals shells and used in rituals to predict the future.

The Shang Dynasty peoples recognized a host of gods and spirits, usually representing natural phenomenon like rain and lightning. They also believed in a powerful god known as Shangdi, who ruled over the other gods. Shangdi himself was under the sway of a powerful natural force known as Tian, or Heaven.

The Shang capital moved many times throughout its history, so the center of Shang civilization was not stable. During the ladder part of the Shang the capital settled in modern day Anyang, Henan province. Here the Shang had a technology and artistic high-point.

The Zhou Dynasty (1027 BC – 221 BC) is officially the longest Chinese dynasty. The Zhou was originally led by a tribal chieftain from modern Shaanxi province. Historical records claim that the last king of the Shang was a poor ruler; for this reason, Tian revoked his right to rule (known as the “Mandate of Heaven”) and allowed the Zhou Dynasty to take over. This became a common theme throughout the remainder of pre-modern Chinese history.

The Zhou Dynasty projected military power and cultural influence over much of northern China. Power was decentralized with many city-states and local rulers. By the 8th century BC power became so decentralized that local warlords began to fight amongst themselves. This period, concurrent with the Zhou Dynasty, was known as the “Spring and Autumn Period.”

Traditional Chinese philosophy has its roots in the Spring and Autumn Period, and both Confucius (father of Confucianism) and Laozi (father of Daoism) lived during this period. Mohism, a philosophy that promoted universal love, also began during this time. Legalism started during this time as well; it was a philosophy that focused on strong laws, discipline and a powerful ruler.

Chaos and Disunity: The Warring States Period

As the power of the Zhou decreased, a number of prominent states appeared in former Zhou territories. Although the Zhou continued to rule in name until the middle of the 3rd century BC, it had very little real authority starting in the 5th century BC.

Seven kingdoms positioned themselves as the most powerful forces in China. These states expanded the area that that Chinese culture had sway to include modern day areas like Sichuan, Liaoning and much of southern China. Warfare between these states was common and widespread.

One by one, the various kingdoms were conquered. The winner of these wars was the kingdom of Qin, which came to control all the territory that other warring states had possessed. The Qin declared itself the ruler of China; this was the first time all of China was unified under a single government. The true beginnings of China’s imperial dynastic system begin with the Qin.